Aboriginal Day of Mourning

Aboriginal Day of Mourning: By Betsy Dang

When:  Australia Day 1938
Where: Australian Hall, Elizabeth Street, Sydney.
Impacts: Informed public about the appalling conditions under which many Aboriginal people lived.  Cause gained widespread support from groups such as trade unions, Housewives Association and feminist clubs.  Aboriginal Protection Board removed (1940).  Changes were made to Aboriginal Protection Amendment Act 1940 which gave Aboriginals of NSW two representatives on Aborigines Welfare Board (1943).

What happened:

• While white Australians celebrated 150 years of European settlement, Aborigines held a Day of Mourning


• The landing at Sydney Cove marks the beginning of bitter wars, unnecessary and brutal deaths, and the continuing struggle for survival by Aboriginal people in Sydney and around Australia.


• Culmination of 10 years political protest against discriminatory policies of government that denied Aboriginal people full citizen status and equal rights.


• Those in attendance: William Cooper (secretary of Aboriginal Advancement League), Margaret Tucker & Doug Nicholls from Melbourne, Jack and Selina Patten from La Perouse, Bill Ferguson from Dubbo, Pearl Gibbs from Brewarrina and Helen Grosvenor from Redfern.


• 1937:  Idea proposed by William Cooper at Aboriginal Advancement League meeting.


• Bill Ferguson (Aborigine’s Progressive Association) had been invited to speak about pitiful conditions of life on NSW reserves.


• Aborigine’s Progressive Association had only been formed to draw attention to injustices endured under the NSW Aborigines Protection Board.


• 1937: Association had already presented detailed submission to Select Committee of NSW Parliament inquiring into administration of Protection Board.


• Charged reserve managers and protectors abused powers & failed to carry out responsibilities.


• Bill Ferguson & jack Patten produced manifesto – “Aborigines Claim Citizen Rights!”.  


• Accused white Australia of genocide


• Called for Royal Commission and public inquiry into circumstances of Aboriginal people and proposed future of nation lay in granting citizenship to Aborigines.


• Achieved by:


• Repealing discriminatory laws and abolishing Aborigines Protection Board.


• Granting Aboriginal people the same political & legal rights as others


• Giving Aboriginal people access to social service benefits, workers compensation and equal wages


• Granting equal rights to possession of property.


• Granting equal education opportunities.


• 31st January: 20 Aboriginal people presented these demands to PM J.A Lyons, his wife and Commonwealth minister responsible for Indigenous affairs in Northern Territory, John McEwen.


• Presented 10-point plan including:


• Commonwealth control of Aboriginal affairs


• Creation of Ministry of Aboriginal Affairs and Aboriginal representation on board of administrators to be determined by Aborigines Progressive Association


• Full citizenship status and equality in education, the law, welfare, work and labour.


• PM responded by stating that such changes could only occur through an alteration to the Constitution.  The Commonwealth had no power to interfere in state matters.

Impact:

• Was important example of organised Aboriginal protest and part of wider campaign of Aboriginal activism in interwar years.


• Aboriginal Progressive Association and other activist groups were successful in speaking up for Aborigines, in publicizing conditions on reserves and clearly identifying a list of reforms that would give them the chance to participate fully in Australian society.

Aboriginal Day of Mourning:

• Report of Day of Mourning Conference was written up in “Abo Call” (monthly newspaper by Jack Patten).  


• Powerful statement about social injustices suffered by Aboriginal people.


• Ferguson & Patten’s manifesto played key role in informing public about appalling living  conditions.


• Work of Aborigines Progressive Association was important because evidence gathered for Select Committee Inquiry into the Protection Board was thorough and well presented.  Newspapers used it = publicity.


• Cause gained widespread support from groups such as trade unions, Housewives Association and feminist clubs.  


• Though Inquiry abandoned, the old Protection Board was removed in 1940.  


• Aboriginal Progressive Association was active in other ways too:


• Promoted first Aboriginal strike in 1939 when over 100 people walked off Cummeragunja Reserve.  Protest against appalling conditions on reserve and treatment they received from their Protection Board manager.  This helped bring about the abolition of old Board.  


• People gave generously to collections for the striking community.


• Jack Patten was tried and convicted for inciting Aboriginal people to leave a reserve.


• WWII = government accusation of strike organizers being Nazi agents.


• Jack Patten and co pressured to stop campaigning and public support fell away.


• Changes were made to Aboriginal Protection Amendment Act 1940 which gave Aboriginals of NSW two representatives on Aborigines Welfare Board (1943). One full blood: Walter Page, one half-caste: Bill Ferguson.


• Many of the issues raised at the Day of Mourning Conference and by the Aborigines Progressive Association would resurface in the years following WWII and become the agenda for future reform.


• May 27th, 1967 saw a referendum in which the nation voted to give Aboriginal people citizenship rights in their own country.  There was an overwhelming “yes” vote of more than 90% across the country.  


• Despite the advances made for their rights, Aborigines are still disadvantaged in many ways.  Today, Indigenous people make up 2% of the population, yet make up 12% of Australia’s homeless.  Around 40% of children in correctional facilities are Indigenous.  There are 18 Indigenous people to every non-Indigenous person in Australian jails and nearly half of all Indigenous people have a formal education below Year 10 level.

History Yearly Notes- By Jacky Murong

History Yearly: Notes 2005
By Jacky Murong

Australia’s Personality
- Personality Bradman

• Reputable sporting champion


• Generated confidence and unity in Australia during its time of need~ Great Depression


• Example of national spirit developed in sacrifices in WW1


• Displayed the qualities of nation’s true self


• Typical Aussie battler


• Developed obsession and skills of cricket when he was young


• One of the greatest cricketers that ever lived~ Achievements unparalleled


• National icon in his days


• Held many records for some time~ Highest international score~ Two test triple centuries in one year


• Champion on and off the field~ known for sportsmanship and devotion to his beloved sport~ gentleman- off the field- polite and courteous


• Given Australia’s highest honour, “Companion of the Order of Australia”


• Greatest character in Australian history


• Has left a commendable contribution and image on Australian history

- Event
“The Opening of the Sydney Harbour Bridge”

• Significant to Australian history~ marked the beginning of one of Australia’s most famous and well-known icons


• World’s largest steel arch bridge


• Helps the development and expansion of the city


• A symbol of industrial maturity and growth of city areas


• One of the most remarkable feats of bridge construction


• Symbol of Australian culture, continually represented in movies and photographs


• Focal point of Australia’s tourism and national pride


• Ongoing significance in Australian history~ New Years Day~ Australia Day


• Icon that will stand and be recognised well into the future


• Plays a huge part in Australia’s culture and history

Changing Rights + Freedoms of Aborigines- Definitions

• Rights: rights of a citizen of a country as specified by the law


• Freedoms: opportunities to do certain things

- Paternalism

• By 1901 Aboriginal population dropped to 60 000 (est.)~ 1788: 300 000


• Europeans and Australians believed that Aborigines were inferior because they:» wore no clothes» were pagan» didn’t speak English» were black (non-white)

- Social Darwinism

• All this was the underlying reason for paternalism


• Impacts: Aborigines were:» forced from traditional lands onto missions + reserves without consultation» given handouts (dependent on the government)» isolated and segregated from white people


• These were deemed in their best interests~ better than leading their ‘barbaric, nomadic lifestyle’


• Resulted in:» More discrimination + control» The creation of remote + isolated communities which had:          › no right to vote          › no right to reserve the basic wage or pensions

- Self-determination


- Policies

• Policy of Protectionism


• Aborigines were forced to live on reserves


• Aboriginal children could be removed from families and sent to homes or stations to be trained as servants or farm labourers and to make them ‘civilised’.  It was a way of salvaging them from their ‘primitive’ lifestyle.


• Described by some authorities as a system of “protection-segregation” (separation of Aborigines from the white society to protect them from its bad effects)


• Provided medical care, rations, blankets to those on the reserves and stations


• Led to the appointment of two white ‘guardians’ in NSW who had many powers to control Aboriginal people


• Federal government creates an Aboriginal Department which is under a Chief Protector.  This person had the right to take an Aboriginal person into his custody and arrest Aboriginal people without a warrant.  No Aborigines could marry without the permission of the minister of external affairs.


• 1913: Commonwealth report on Aborigines recommends that Aboriginal children should be taken from their parents so that: ~ the mixed-blooded children could be integrated~ the full-blooded children would lose their nomadic lifestyle›› Leads to Stolen Generation

Reactions to this policy

• Aborigines were forced to accept this policy up to 1914


• One Aborigine complained that Europeans stole his country and were stealing Aboriginal children by taking them away to live in huts, work, and read books like white fellows.


• The Australian Aborigines Progressive Association (1924) and the Aborigines League (1932) pushed for reform until changes were made.

Policy of AssimilationImpacts:

• Aboriginal children frequently taken away from their families and re-educated with white values under this policy


• Less full-blood Aborigines


• Limited recognition for those who fought in WWII and worked in the cattle industry


• Found difficulties getting work


• Some towns still segregated things


• Aboriginal man’s wages were less than white man’s


• Encouraged many to give up their traditional lifestyle to be more independent of the government


• Ostracised as the community was less accepting


• Often denied access to housing and health assistance


• Encountered resistance in shops, entertainment values and public places

Experiences of children under this policy:

• Taken away when still an infant


• Thought they had no family, no parents


• Thought they were white


• Harsh Treatment- treated like animals


• Sexual Abuse

- 1967 Referendum
Significance

• Important leap in the struggle for Aboriginal rights and freedoms- the movement of equality


• Gave the Commonwealth the power to make laws specifically to benefit Aboriginal people


• Allowed Aboriginal people to vote freely and gain proper citizenship


• Gave them more freedom in what they could do


• A policy made by the Commonwealth government meant uniform laws, instead of different ones depending on which state they were in


• Having the Council of Aboriginal Affairs meant Aboriginals had a political voice for the first time and some influence over the policies that governed them


• Made them equal to the rest of the white population

Fall of Singapore- By Betsy Dang

Fall of Singapore:

• Fell to Japanese Army


• February 15th, 1942.


• One of the greatest defeats in the history of the British Army and worst defeat in WWII.


• Clearly illustrated way that Japan was to fight in the Far East.  Combination of speed and savagery that ended with use of atomic bomb on Hiroshima (1945).


• Demonstrated that Japanese Army was a force to be reckoned with through the defeat


• Ushered in three years of appalling treatment of Commonwealth POWs who were caught in Singapore


• Singapore considered vital part of British Empire


• Supposedly impregnable.


• Improvements to Singapore as British military base had only been completed at great cost in 1938.


• Singapore epitomized what British Empire was all about – strategically placed vital military base that protected Britain’s other Commonwealth possessions in Far East.


• Once Japanese expanded throughout region after Pearl Harbour (Dec. 1941), many in Britain felt that Singapore would become obvious target.


• British military command was confident that power they could call on there would render any Japanese attack useless.


• British troops stationed in Singapore were told that Japanese troops were poor fighters.  Alright against China, poor fighters themselves.


• Japanese onslaught through Malay Peninsula took everybody by surprise.


• Speed was the essence for the Japanese, never allowing British forces time to regroup.


• First time British forces came up against full-scale attack by Japanese.


• Any thoughts of Japanese fighting a conventional form of war shattered.


• British confidently predicted that Japanese would attack from the sea.


• All defences on Singapore pointed out to sea.


• Inconceivable to British military planners that the island could be attacked any other way – least of all, through the jungle and mangrove swamps of Malay Peninsula.


• As Japanese attacked through Peninsula, their troops were ordered to take no prisoners as they would slow up the Japanese advance.  “When you encounter the enemy after landing, think of yourself as an avenger coming face to face at last with his father’s murderer.  Here is a man whose death will lighten your heart”


• British military command in Singapore still fought by the “rule book”.


• Social life important in Singapore.


• Raffles Hotel and Singapore Club were important social centers frequented by officers.  An air of complacency had built in regarding how strong Singapore was – especially if they were attacked by the Japanese.  


• When the Japanese did land at Kota Bharu aerodrome in Malaya, Singapore’s governor, Sir Shenton Thomas allegedly said “Well, I suppose you’ll (the army) shove the little men off.”


• Attack on Singapore occurred almost at the same time as Pearl Harbour.


• December 9th, 1941:  RAF had nearly lost all of its front line aeroplanes after the Japanese had attacked RAF fields in Singapore.  


• Any hope for aerial support for the army was destroyed before the actual attack on Singapore had actually begun.


• December 8th, 1941:  both modern battleships “Prince of Wales” and battle cruiser “Repulse” were put out to sea and headed up north to Malay coast where the Japanese were landing.  


• December 10th: both ships sunk by repeated attacks from Japanese torpedo bombers.


• RAF could offer ships no protection as their planes had already been destroyed by the Japanese.  


• Loss of both ships had devastating impact on morale in Britain.  “I put the telephone down.  I was thankful to be alone.  In all the war I never received a more direct shock.” – Sir Winston Churchill


• Only army could stop the Japanese advance on Singapore.


• Army was lead by Lieutenant General Arthur Percival.

Fall of Singapore:

• Had 90,000 men there – British, Indian and Australian troops.  Many had never seen combat.


• Japanese advanced with 65,000 men lead by General Tomoyuki Yamashita.  Many of Japanese troops had fought in Manchurian/Chinese campaign and were battle-hardened.


• Battle of Jitra (December 11th& 12th,1941):  Percival’s men soundly beaten and from this battle, were in full retreat.


• Japanese attack based on speed, ferocity and surprise.  


• To speed advance on Singapore – used bicycles.


• Captured wounded Allied soldiers were killed where they lay


• Those who were not injured but surrendered were also murdered.  Some captured Australian troops were doused with petrol and burned to death.


• Locals who had helped the Allies were tortured before being murdered.


• Effectiveness demonstrated when they captured the capital of Malaya (Kuala Lumpur) on January 11th, 1942.


• All indications were that Japanese would attack Singapore across the Johor strait.  


• General Wavell, British Commander in the region was ordered to fight to save Singapore and not to surrender until there had been protracted fighting in an effort to save the city.


• January 31st, 1942:  British and Australian forces withdrew across the causeway that separated Singapore from Malaya.  Final stand.


• Percival spread men across 70 mile line – entire coastline.  


• Mistake – this spread men out too thinly for an attack.


• February 8th, 1942:  Japanese attacked across Johor Strait.  Many Allied soldiers were too far away to influence outcome of battle.


• 23,000 attacked Singapore.


• Percival kept many men away from the Japanese attack fearing that more Japanese would attack along the coastline.


• Percival blamed for failing to back up those troops caught up directly with fighting.


• Now accepted that this would not have changed final outcome, but instead, prolonged fighting.


• Japanese took 100,000 men in Singapore.  Many had just arrived and not fired a bullet.


• 9,000 of these men died building the Burma-Thailand railway.


• People of Singapore fared worse.  


• Many were of Chinese origin and slaughtered by Japanese.


• After war, Japan admitted 5,000 murdered.


• Chinese in Singapore estimates 50,000.


• Fall of Singapore = humiliation for British government.


• Japanese portrayed as useless soldiers only capable of fighting the militarily inferior Chinese.


• Assessment clearly rested uncomfortably with how the British Army had done in the peninsula.


• “The whole operation seems incredible: 550 miles in 55 days – forced back by a small Japanese army of only two divisions, riding stolen bicycles and without artillery support.” – Commander of Australian forces in Singapore

Siege of Tobruk - By Betsy Dang

Siege of Tobruk-

• Location: Cyrenaica (province of Libya), North Africa.


• Dates: 31st March – 27th November 1941


• Players: Allies – 9th Australian Division under Major General Leslie Morshead, partially replaced by British and Polish troops between August and October.

Axis:  General Erwin Rommel’s Deutsches Afrika Korps including 5th Light Division and three Italian Divisions (Ariete, Brescia, Trento); under the nominal command of the Italian General Italo Gariboldi.

• Outcome: The Australian, British and Polish divisions under siege in Tobruk were twice attacked by Rommel’s forces, and both times retained control of the Lobyan port.  The siege was lifted after nearly eight months.


• January 1941: Allied forces in North Africa swept Italians from Western Desert to Cyrenaica during Operation Compass


• Cyrenaica garrisoned by small force under Lieutenant Phillip Neame.


• Neame had orders to fight a delaying action back 110km (Benghazi) inside Cyrenaica.


• Rommel arrived in Tripoli on 12th February.


• Planned British withdrawal degenerated into a rout (disorderly withdrawal following defeat).


• Rommel initiated an ambitious encirclement tactic.


• 4th April: Germans took Benghazi.


• 7th April: German column reached sea at Derna (95km).


• Captured Neame and O’Connor (advisor of Neame).


• British retreat inevitable


• General Archibald Wavell (Commander in Chief Middle East) decided Tobruk (port) had to be held.


• Strong fortress, almost completely surrounded by flat plateau and sea on one side.


• Tobruk garrisoned by 9th Division/


• 13th & 15th April: Germans and Italians attacked.


• Rommel sent tanks in first to create gap which infantry would follow.


• Allies made strategic decision to let tanks through easily and launch heavy attack only once the tanks were trapped inside the city, cut off from the rest of the Axis


• Success.


• Rommel laid siege to the port.


• Two British offensives (Brevity/ Battleaxe) failed to break siege.


• August:  Aus govt. was insisting men should be withdrawn


• 18th November:  General Claude Auchinleck launched operation Crusader, which succeeded in lifting the siege by the end of the month.


• Rommel attacked again the following year.


• Torbuk was captured by the Germans and the 35,000 strong garrison taken prisoner of war.

Kokoda - By Preet Gosal

Kokoda- By Preet Gosal
One of the bloodiest campaigns of World War II, which has forever sealed the relationship between Australia and Papua New Guinea, began 61 years ago
It was on July 21, 1942, that Japanese troops landed on the northern coast of then New Guinea and unexpectedly began to march over the Owen Stanley Ranges with the intent of capturing Port Moresby.
Had they succeeded, the mainland of Australia would have come under dire threat.
July 23 – Remembrance Day – marks the 61st anniversary of the first engagement between the opposing troops on July 23, 1942, and from that engagement, as the Australian force was progressively outnumbered, began the long fighting withdrawal over the Owen Stanley Ranges.
The 21st Brigade, commandeered by Brigadier Potts DSO MC, was rushed to New Guinea and within days, its 1500 men were closing into the precarious Owen Stanley Ranges in an attempt to position themselves to stop the advance of the Japanese forces – now building up to over 10, 000 men.
The Brigade also engaged the ill – trained but gallant militia 39th Battalion at Isurava in the foothills on the far side of the range.
Kokoda was arguably Australia's most significant campaign of the Second World War.
More Australians died in the seven months of fighting in Papua, and the Japanese came closer to Australia, than in any other campaign.
Many of those young Australians, whose average age was between 18 and 19, now lie buried at the Bomana War Cemetery outside Port Moresby.
The famous photograph of ‘fuzzy wuzzy angel’ Raphael Oimbari leading a blindfolded wounded Australian epitomizes the close relationship between Australians and Papua New Guineans which has come about because of the battle of Kokoda.
To read between the lines of ‘Fuzzy Wuzzy Angels’, the celebrated poem by Australian digger Bert Beros, will drive you to tears.
The poem, which whilst sentimental, touches a chord that has endured to this day in the hearts of both Australians and Papua New Guineans. (image placeholder)
It tells of the prayers of worried Australian mothers, whose young sons are fighting the Japanese on that rugged trail, and how their prayers are answered in the form of ‘fuzzy wuzzy angels’.
Fuzzy Wuzzy Angels
Many a mother in Australia when the busy day is doneSends a prayer to the Almighty for the keeping of her sonAsking that an angel guide him and bring him safely backNow we see those prayers are answered on the Owen Stanley Track.For they haven't any halos only holes slashed in their earsAnd their faces worked by tattoos with scratch pins in their hairBringing back the badly wounded just as steady as a horseUsing leaves to keep the rain off and as gentle as a nurseSlow and careful in the bad places on the awful mountain trackThey look upon their faces would make you think Christ was blackNot a move to hurt the wounded as they treat him like a saintIt's a picture worth recording that an artist's yet to paintMany a lad will see his mother and husbands see their wivesJust because the fuzzy wuzzy carried them to save their livesFrom mortar bombs and machine gun fire or chance surprise attacksTo the safety and the care of doctors at the bottom of the trackMay the mothers of Australia when they offer up a prayerMention those impromptu angels with their fuzzy wuzzy hair.
- Bert Beros
In 1942, a seldom-used track climbed from the small village of Buna on the north coast of Papua, over the Owen Stanley Ranges and on to Port Moresby.
The track was fairly easy up the slopes through Gorari and Oivi to the village of Kokoda, which stood on a small plateau 400 meters above sea level, flanked by mountains rising to over 2000 meters.
It then climbed over steep ridges and through deep valleys to Deniki, Isurava, Kagi, Ioribaiwa, Ilolo and, at Owers' Corner, linked with a motor road leading from plantations in the hills above Port Moresby down to the coastal plains.
Between Kokoda and Ilolo, the track often climbed up gradients so steep that it was heartbreaking labor for burdened men to climb even a few hundred yards. (image placeholder)
Much of the track was through dense rain forest, which enclosed the narrow passage between walls of thick bush.
At higher levels the terrain became moss and stunted trees, which were often covered in mist.
On January 23, 1942, the Japanese landed at Kavieng on New Ireland and at Rabaul on New Britain where they quickly overcame the Australian defenders.
On March 8, the Japanese established themselves firmly at Lae and Salamaua in Morobe.
However, the Battle of the Coral Sea from May 5 to 8 averted a Japanese sea borne invasion of Port Moresby and the American success at the Battle of Midway in June not only destroyed Japan's capacity for undertaking long range offensives but also provided the Americans with the opportunity to move from the defensive to the offensive.
The Japanese, who were regularly bombing Port Moresby with twenty to thirty bombers with fighter escort, decided on the overland attack across the Owen Stanley Range.
On the Kododa Trail the Australian 7th Division resisted the Japanese General Horii's overland attempt to capture Port Moresby, and the advance was halted within 30 miles of the city.
A small force of Australians known as "Maroubra Force" arrived at Buna on July 21st, 1942, as the first Japanese force of 1500 men landed at Gona, eight miles to the west.
What followed will forever go down as one of the most heroic defensive actions in the annals of military history.
The first engagement between the opposing troops was on the July 23, 1942, and from that engagement, as the Australian force was progressively outnumbered, began the long fighting withdrawal over the Owen Stanley Range.
Kokoda is a small plateau on the north-east slopes of the Owen Stanley Range and possessed a small airstrip the retention of which, for at least as long as it would take Australia to fly in supplies and reinforcements, was of great importance.
However, the remnants of "Maroubra Force", exhausted by a month's constant fighting, were unable to achieve this. (image placeholder)
Valiant though their effort was, they even recaptured the plateau after being driven out, the Japanese need was of equal importance as they required a forward base at Kokoda for their drive over the ranges along the "Kokoda Trail" to Port Moresby and they struck before the Australians were able to muster sufficient strength.
The initiative now remained with the Japanese and Australian withdrawal began again - through Isurava, Alola, Templeton's Crossing, Myola, Efogi, Menari and Nauro until at Ioribaiwa Ridge, beyond which the Japanese could not be permitted to penetrate, a final stand was made.
From August 26 to September 16 in 1942 Brigadier Potts’s Maroubra Force, consisting of the 2/16th Battalion, together with the 2/14th, the 2/27th and the militia 39th and scattered elements of the ill – trained 53rd Battallion - outnumbered and outgunned by an estimated 5 to 1 - fought the Japanese to an eventual standstill on the ridges overlooking Port Moresby.
Two main battles were fought during that period (Isurava August 26 to 29 and Brigade ‘Butchers’Hill from September 6 to 8).
In the main, the desperately tired but determined force kept themselves between the Japanese Major General Horri’s South Sea Force and Port Moresby – defending, retreating and then counter – attacking in a masterly display of strategic defence.
Conditions were almost indescribable.
It rained for most of the time, the weary men endured some of the most difficult terrain of the world and they were racked by malaria and dysentery.
But they kept on fighting, making the enemy pay dearly for every yard of ground.
They bought time for those being prepared to come up from Port Moresby to relieve them.
The Australians, however, had a surprise in store for the enemy.
This was in the form of 25-pounder guns brought from Moresby to the road head at Owers’ Corner and then laboriously dragged into position at Imita Ridge, opening up on the enemy's barricades and it was now the turn of the Japanese to suffer what the Australians had suffered in the preceding two months. (image placeholder)
Australian shelling smashed Japanese defences and aggressive patrols inflicted severe losses.
On the morning of September 28th the Australians were closing in and it became evident then the Japanese were withdrawing.
The chase, with the Australians the pursuers, was now on.
The Japanese, despite sickness and hunger, were still formidable and tenaciously defended all the places in their withdrawal as the Australians had in their retreat some weeks earlier.
Kokoda was entered on November 2 and this was the beginning of the end of Japanese hopes in Papua.
The campaign now entered a phase known as "The Battle of the Beaches".
The Japanese were bottled up in the area from which they had commenced their drive on Port Moresby some months previously - Buna, Gona, Sanananda.
This final campaign commenced on November 19, 1942, and ended on January 22, 1943, when all organised resistance by the Japanese in Papua ended.
Lt Col Honner DSO MC, who commanded the gallant 39th in the campaign, later wrote of these men in the foreword to Peter Brune’s book ‘Those Rugged Bloody Heroes’: “They have joined the immortals.”
Of those that did not survive, he wrote: “Wherever their bones may lie, the courage of heroes is consecrated in the hearts and engraved in the history of the free.”

History Yearly 2005 - By Eugene Siu

History Yearly 2005 Notes

WW2

Australia was at war because Great Britain was and they requested our aid. However we decided not to be involved until Japan was. But some didn’t want to send aid to Britain as Japan was right on our doorstep. While others said to give the full support to Great Britain.  

The Rise of Hitler and the Nazis

All that was needed was for a strong nationalistic leader who could promise to restore Germany’s pride and position among the great nations of Europe. As well as this the Germans needed someone who could create employment. That leader was Adolf Hitler and his party was the Nazi Party, the Nationalist Socialist Party. The Nazis had policies based on their concept of themselves as the ‘master race’ and this meant that they wanted to become masters of Europe, with the ‘inferior races’ like the Slavs and the Jews becoming slaves while the Germans ruled.

Hitler talked of creating lebensraum, that is, living room outside of Germany where the German people could continue to expand their dominance. This made the Germans instant enemies of Slavic countries such as Russia and the Soviet Union who were now experimenting with communism, another hate of Hitler.

The Rise of Fascism

Earlier, in the 1920s, a similar party arose in Italy under the leadership of Benito Mussolini, called the Fascists. These people, like the Nazis, believed in the supremacy of the state, or government, and the leader which meant that all people had to bow to the will of the leader and his party. It was very undemocratic and Mussolini believed that he was about o build another great empire for Italy, which meant a large army and navy and military conquests. The Fascists were the natural allies of the Nazis and they created what became known as they ‘Rome-Berlin Axis’, an alliance between the two.

The Rise of Japanese Militarism

After a great deal of unrest and uncertainty during the 1920s, the military took over in Japan. They began a military campaign to become masters of eastern Asia and invaded Manchuria and China in the 1930s. This upset many of the Western powers, especially the United States, because they feared that the Japanese would stop their trade with Asia, especially in China.

The countries who had colonies in Asia- the British with colonies in Malaya, Singapore and Burma, the French in Indo-China (now known as Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos) and the Dutch in the Dutch East (now called Indonesia)- were also very suspicious of the Japanese and their desire to take over Asia. The Japanese also had a fascist type government and signed a treaty with Germany.

The Road to War

In the 1930s the three fascist countries became very aggressive in the pursuit of their aims. The Germans took over Austria and the western half of Czechoslovakia, the Italians invaded Abyssinia in northern Africa while the Japanese moved into China and Manchuria.

The western powers of Britain, France and the United States pursued policies of appeasement for a long time, hoping the problem would go away. They did not want to return to the horrors of the First World War, which was supposed to have been the ‘war to end all wars’. Throughout the 1930s Hitler and Mussolini and the Japanese were allowed to have their way. But by 1939, it was becoming obvious that the fascist countries were not about to stop and Britain and France began to prepare for war.

On 1 September 1939 German troops invaded Poland, a small country with out-of-date defences. Britain and France, allies of Poland, gave Hitler an ultimatum to withdraw but, two days later, on 3 September, the time given was up and German troops were still in Poland and so Britain and France declared war.

Australia’s Position

Australia was still closely tied to Great Britain and Britain’s foreign policy was Australia’s. Australians were still proudly part of the British Empire and supported Britain’s colonial role in Asia. Australia, being a democratic country, also objected to the rise of fascism and Nazism in Europe and feared the new Japanese military giant to our north. So, when Germany invaded Poland in 1939 and Britain declared war, Australia also declared war in support, just as had happened in 1914 at the outbreak of WW1.

The ‘phoney war’

After the declaration of war in September 1939, there was a period the British called the ‘phoney war’ because not much seemed to happen. While the Germans continued their invasion of Poland, the British and the French were making desperate moves to rebuild their depleted armies and airforces.

It was only in the year before the war, when they could see that Germany was not going to stop, that this recommenced seriously. The USA, in the meantime was keeping a close watch on the situation but the US Congress was keen on keeping America neutral.

Australia’s First Contribution

The Australian government, under Prime Minister Menzies, was uncertain what to do because there was the menace of the powerful Japanese army closer to home. But, by January 1940, an initial intake of 20 000 men had been recruited and trained and sent to the Middle East as the 6th Division, Second Australian Imperial Force, to prepare to fight the Germans.

It was like a repeat of 1915, the men expecting to land in Europe but ending up in Egypt. They were as undisciplined as their fathers a generation earlier and many mistrusted the British command. But this time, they were to fight as an independent Australian army, not as ‘British’ troops, as they had done in WW1.

The War in North Africa and the Middle East

The Australians did not fight against the Germans for some time. Instead, they fought the Italians in Egypt and Libya, where the Australians and their allies had some dramatic successes.

Early in 1941 the Australian 6th and 7th Divisions, together with an Indian division, defeated and captured 125 000 Italian soldiers and 1000 heavy guns. They won victories at exotic-sounding places like Sidi Barrani, Bardia, Tobruk and Benghazi.

But the Australians met much stronger resistance against the Vichy French in Syria. These were the French soldiers who were allied to the Germans. Again, when the Australian 6th Division was diverted to Greece and Crete, leaving men behind to be captured or to spend the war fighting with Greek guerrilla forces.

The Germans come to North Africa

In North Africa, shortly after the Australian’s dramatic victory against the Italian forces, the Germans were sent to the assistance of the collapsing Italian army. The German commander was Field Marshall Erwin Rommel, the ‘desert fox’ and his army was known as the Afrika Corps. They were better trained and equipped than the Italians and they struck early in 1941 when the British were not prepared. They pushed the Allies back along the coast of North Africa to Tobruk. Their aim was to take the Suez Canal, a strategic sea-lane that was the life-line of Britain to its Empire.

The Germans besieged Tobruk, a town on the coast of Libya. It was defended by 24 000 men, 14 000 of them Australians from the 7th and 9th Divisions. Some of the other defenders became were Ghurkas from Nepal. The defenders became known as the ‘Rats of Tobruk’, a name the Germans gave them but which the defenders used with pride.

The Germans kept the siege going while the rest of the army pressed on into Egypt. The defenders of Tobruk held on for 242 days until the Germans withdrew. Towards the end of this time the original defenders were gradually replaced with reinforcements as the battle continued but the conditions under which they fought, with the hot, disease, little food and water, and the clothes rotting off their backs, took their toll; 749 Australians died at Tobruk.

The Australians Withdraw

The 9th Division were the last Australian soldiers to fight in large numbers against the Germans. The Japanese threat back on our own doorstep in New Guinea caused the Australian government to start withdrawing all of the Australian army to Australia and the Pacific. The 6th and 7th Divisions had already been withdrawn and now the 9th came home. The land battle for Europe would be left to Britain and its other allies.

Naval and Airforce Operations

Australia’s navy and airforce were involved in fighting against Germany from very early in the war. Our ships were sent to join British navy ships on convoy duty in the Atlantic and our airforce operated with the British airforce.

Australian airmen fought alongside airmen from all over the British Empire in 1940 in the desperate Battle of Britain when the Germans tried to bomb Britain into submission. Later they manned heavy bombers in the bombing of Europe right until the end of the war. Also, some airforce units did not go back home with the army in 1942 and 1943 but stayed to fight in Sicily and Italy.

Kokoda 1942

Australians went to Papua New Guinea to stop the Japanese from gaining control over Papua New Guinea. It was essential for us to stop them as if Japan gained control over Papua New Guinea, they could have an effective launching pad on Australia.

Aborigines

Policies related to the Aboriginal People in the 20th Century

Paternalism

Time: 1901-1967
Impact on Aboriginal People: Aboriginal people weren’t given the same basic human or democratic rights

Protectionism

Time: 1909-67
Impact on Aboriginal People: whites took freedom from Aborigines, lost their culture, whites monitored everything about them, children taught to be white
Assimilation

Time: 1901-65
Impact on Aboriginal people: Aboriginal children were taken to live as white people; they were brain-washed, lost their culture to become white

Self-Determination

Time: 1992-now
Impact on Aboriginal people: Aborigines having their own rights and laws for governing themselves

Integration

Time: 1965 onwards
Impact on Aboriginal People: Aboriginal people allowed to keep their culture but were still taught to be white

The Stolen Generation

The Stolen Generation is the term used to identify the children that were forcefully or voluntarily removed from their families by the agencies acting on behalf of the Australian Government, included church missions. The removal of children began as early as the late 19th century and continued approximately 1972. Recent government enquires have noted that at least 35 000 children were removed from their families. However, this figure may be substantially higher, as the formal records were poorly kept. The aim of the policy of removal was to assimilate mixed Aborigines into European society and thereby prevent mixed descent Aborigines marrying other Aborigines.

“Bringing Them Home”: The ‘Stolen Children’ Report

The National Inquiry into the Separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Children from Their Families was established in May 1995 in response to efforts made by key Indigenous agencies and communities. They were concerned that the general public's ignorance of the history of forcible removal was hindering the recognition of the needs of its victims and their families and the provision of services.

A key turning point was the 1994 Going Home Conference in Darwin. Representatives from every state and territory met to share experiences, to bring to light the history and its effects in each jurisdiction and to devise strategies to meet the needs of those children and their families who survive.

On 11 May 1995, the then Attorney-General, Michael Lavarch MP, referred the issue of past and present practices of separation of Indigenous children from their families to the Commission. The Inquiry looked at four main issues or "terms of reference".

The first was to examine the past and continuing effects of separation of individuals, families and communities. The Inquiry relied upon Indigenous and non-Indigenous individuals, government and non-government organisations to participate by making submissions or giving evidence to the Inquiry. The second was to identify what should be done in response, which could entail recommendations to change laws, policies and practices, to re-unite families and otherwise deal with losses caused by separation. The third was to find justification for, and nature of, any compensation for those affected by separation. The last looked at current laws, policies and practices affecting the placement and care of Indigenous children. This included looking into the welfare and juvenile justice systems, and advising on any changes in the light of the principles of self-determination.

The Inquiry undertook an extensive program of hearings in every capital city and in many regional and smaller centres. The first hearings took place on 4 December 1995 on Flinders Island with the last round of hearings ending on 3 October 1996 in Sydney.

Public evidence was taken from Indigenous organisations and individuals, state and territory government representatives, church representatives, other non-government agencies, former mission and government employees and individual members of the community. Confidential evidence was taken in private from Indigenous people affected by forcible and from adoptive and foster parents. Many people and organisations made written submissions to the Inquiry, including many who also gave oral evidence.

There were 777 submissions received which included: 535 Indigenous individual and group submissions; 49 church submissions; and 7 government submissions. 500 of the submissions were made confidentially. Approximately 5625 children were taken under the assimilation policy where they would be brainwashed into the white culture.


By Eugene Siu (thanks a heap, this guy contributed a ton!!!) Everyone rememba to thank him!!!

History- Yearly

Bombing at Darwin
On 19 February 1942 mainland Australia came under attack for the first time when Japanese forces mounted two air raids on Darwin. The two attacks, which were planned and led by the commander responsible for the attack on Pearl Harbour ten weeks earlier, involved 54 land-based bombers and approximately 188 attack aircraft which were launched from four Japanese aircraft-carriers in the Timor Sea. In the first attack, which began just before 10.00am, heavy bombers pattern-bombed the harbour and town; dive bombers escorted by Zero fighters then attacked shipping in the harbour, the military and civil aerodromes, and the hospital at Berrimah. The attack ceased after about 40 minutes. The second attack, which began an hour later, involved high altitude bombing of the Royal Australian Air Force base at Parap which lasted for 20–25 minutes. The two raids killed at least 243 people and between 300 and 400 were wounded. Twenty military aircraft were destroyed, eight ships at anchor in the harbour were sunk, and most civil and military facilities in Darwin were destroyed.
Contrary to widespread belief at the time, the attacks were not a precursor to an invasion. The Japanese were preparing to invade Timor, and anticipated that a disruptive air attack would hinder Darwin's potential as a base from which the Allies could launch a counter-offensive, and at the same time would damage Australian morale. With Singapore having fallen to the Japanese only days earlier, and concerned at the effect of the bombing on national morale, the government announced that only 17 people had been killed.
The air attacks on Darwin continued until November 1943, by which time the Japanese had bombed Darwin 64 times. During the war other towns in northern Australia were also the target of Japanese air attack, with bombs being dropped on Townsville, Katherine, Wyndham, Derby, Broome and Port Hedland.
Conscription
In 1943 the issue of conscription arose.
As in 1916 and 1917, the government had the power to conscript men for home service, but not for overseas combat. 'Home', however, included New Guinea, where Australia had a protectorate, and therefore conscripted troops could be and were sent to the war front where they were needed most.
But as the Allies began to defeat the Japanese, the war front spread north, and there was a demand that Australian troops be able to go to the new areas which were outside the definition of 'home'. American conscripts were fighting in these areas so it seemed unfair that Australian conscripts should not also be compelled to fight there.
As in 1916 and 1917, all the government had to do was to change the Defence Act and it could achieve this; and, unlike the situation in 1916, Prime Minister Curtin knew he had the majority in both Houses to make this change.
He did not, however, push the measure through. Rather, he let the Australian Labor Party debate the issue, and come to their own decision which was to support the extension of areas where Australian conscripts could be sent to fight. This debate within the party allowed the opponents to be heard, but also showed how small a minority they were. This avoided a potentially ugly and divisive public brawl on the issue.
The Act was changed, the area where conscripts could be sent was extended - though still strictly limited - and it was all done with little opposition in the community.
Rationing
As part of the Curtin Government's 'Total War' strategy, certain foods began to be rationed in 1943. An important part of the Australian war effort was the provision of food to servicemen in our region, as well as the provision of food parcels to Britain. Rationed goods included tea, sugar, beef, pork and chocolate.
Rationing impacted more on some Cottesloe (Curtain's home town) families than others. In the war years Cottesloe was not as built up as it is today and many residents had large back yards which could be turned over to growing vegetables and raising hens, thus providing a steady stream of fresh vegetables and eggs.
Others had blocks big enough to support their own cow and supply themselves with butter, cream and milk.
Prior to the war most Australians ate large quantities of fried food and meat, drank strong tea and enjoyed sweet foods such as cake and biscuits. The government feared that rationing would result in deterioration in health on the home front but, in fact, the outcome was positive. Rationing resulted in a decline in diet related problems like obesity, diabetes and heart disease.
Fish, sausages, chicken, ham and rabbits were not rationed. The "rabbit-o" walked the streets selling rabbits and skinning them for customers on the spot. 
The fish monger came to the back door once a week and would scale and fillet the fish right there and then.
Recipes designed to cater for the lack of eggs, butter and meat appeared in newspapers and magazines on a regular basis. 
The Women's Weekly interviewed Elsie Curtin during the war. She was happy to share her ration recipes and ideas for the austerity campaign with them. 
Both she and John took the campaign very seriously and set an example to all householders.
Animal parts such as brains, livers and kidneys were more readily available than better cuts of meat during the war and formed a significant part of people's diets.
Hand mincers were well used kitchen appliances at this time. Elsie Curtin used hers to make one of her husband's favourite meals, shepherds pie, by mincing left over meat and combining the mince with stale bread and eggs.
Elsie was lucky that her family liked plain food because many spices, including pepper were not available during the war as these were imported from countries captured by the Japanese. 
Hawkers from Rawlins and Watkins visited homes in the Cottesloe area on a regular basis. They carried their own brands of groceries, toiletries and sometimes if you were lucky, they might even have spices for sale.
Shopping during the war was very different from today. Sometimes you had to queue at the grocers for rationed goods.     
 When Elsie visited McAllister's grocer, Mr. Mac would personally fetch things off the shelves for her as he would for any customer. An assistant would weigh her requirements for sugar, tea and flour, package it, check to make sure that she had not exceeded her ration allowance for that week and collect the required coupons from her. A boy on a push bike would deliver the goods to her door if they weighed above a certain amount (as determined by government regulations).
For those women who were unable to get to the shops, S J Luce, the proprietor of a shop under the cinema on Stirling Highway, had a man who traveled the district every week collecting orders for delivery.
The milkman, butcher and baker made regular deliveries to homes but once rationing was introduced the frequency of home deliveries by the butcher was reduced. 
Some of these services were still provided by horse and cart rather than motor vehicles which were subject to petrol rationing.
Children could buy sweets at the corner shop opposite the Cottesloe School in Keane Street. 
Sweets were laid out in glass containers and jars ready for individual selection. Dr Jim Graham recalls that you could buy quite a lot of sweets with one penny. He recalls also that you could buy an apple, a pear and a small bunch of grapes at Dennis and George's fruit shop in Napoleon Street for just three pence (3 cents).
Women in the army
During World War Two many people who normally worked on farms to produce food and other essential items joined the armed forces to fight the war. 
The government had to find people to replace farm workers to be sure that people in Australia as well as those fighting overseas had adequate supplies. 
The nationwide Women’s Land Army (WLA) was formed in July 1942. 
Within two years there were about 3000 women working on farms in the country. Most WLA members worked full time. Their work was especially important in growing fruit and vegetables, the cotton industry, and on dairy and poultry farms.
The primary role of a Voluntary Aid Detachment (VAD) member was that of nursing orderly in hospitals, carrying out menial but essential tasks – scrubbing floors, sweeping, dusting and cleaning bathrooms and other areas, dealing with bedpans, and washing patients.



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History EZ-notes

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